4D20.10 Crookes' Radiometer
Concepts
Thermal vibrations in solids, mean free path of a gas, absorption of light, thermal transpiration
Overview
The radiometer consists of four vanes are black on one side and white on the other, able to freely rotate about a pivot in a partial vacuum. When light shines on the vanes broadly, the vanes rotate such that the black sides move away from the light. There are two significant contributions to this behaviour.
Firstly, the black surfaces absorb more energy from the light. The hotter black surfaces impart a larger impulse on the surrounding gas due to the stronger thermal vibrations. While higher-energy gas particles tend to block more gas particles from reaching the vanes, cancelling out the effect, this is not true on the edges of the vanes.
Secondly, there is an additional effect that further contributes to the rotation: thermal transpiration or thermal creep. Cold gas from the white sides shifts over to the hot, black sides, increasing the pressure on the black sides and giving a further push.
The relative importance of these two mechanisms requires detailed discussion, found in the references and the technicals section.
Details
Equipment
- [1] Crookes' radiometer
- [1] Incandescent flashlight
Script
- Shine the flashlight at all vanes from close range. The black sides should move away from the light.
Additional Resources
References
- PIRA 4D20.10
- Some real physics legends worked on this radiometer problem: Reynolds, Maxwell, and Einstein. Woodruff gives a readable history:
A. E. Woodruff, TPT 6, 358 (1968) - Reynolds is credited with the origination of the thermal transpiration mechanism:
O. Reynolds, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London 170, 727 (1879) - Maxwell peer-reviewed Reynolds' paper and published a rebuttal before Reynolds' paper was even published:
J. C. Maxwell, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London 170, 231 (1879)
Reynolds was not amused and wanted to publish a protest, but then Maxwell died and the Royal Society thought a protest inappropriate:
J. C. Maxwell, in Maxwell on Heat and Statistical Mechanics: On "Avoiding All Personal Enquiries" of Molecules, edited by E. Garber, S. G. Brush, and C. W. F. Everitt (Associated University Presses, London, 1995), pp. 73-77
- Einstein gets involved with an analysis of the collision mechanism near the vane edges. The article's in German, though:
A. Einstein, Z. Physik 27, 1 (1924)
Disclaimer
- Don't attempt this at home!
- SFU is not affiliated with any external sites linked here and is not responsible for their content.
Last revised
- 2024
Technicals
- When the mean free path of the gas particles is on the order of the radiometer size or larger, the collision mechanism is important. As the mean free path shrinks, particles bouncing off the black surfaces are more likely to intercept other particles moving towards the black sides, mitigating some of the effect of the push. At all pressures, the collision mechanism remains important on the edges of the vanes.
- When illuminated with a smartphone flash or red laser pointer, the radiometer does not rotate. When illuminated on a vane edge by a green laser pointer, it rotates, but not if illuminated in the middle. It would be interesting to try the demo with a variety of light sources of various powers to see what works.
Related AV
Related demos
If you have any questions about the demos or notes you would like to add to this page, contact Ricky Chu at ricky_chu AT sfu DOT ca.