Complete Exercise 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, p. 58-62
1. a): D A A N N V V V (note: 'pot-belly' is a noun, not an adjective.)
b) D A N V D A N P D A A N
c) D A A A N V P D A N P NP/D A A N
d) NP/D V/T A V D A N P N N
Note: Carnie throws in words here he has not discussed. He labelled one tensed auxiliary verb as T. If though he is technically incorrect, I didn't discuss this. Accept either T or V tensed auxiliaries. He does discuss pronouns, either. Some people consider them D, others NP with the function of D. Accept either.
2. wabe = N, modified by 'the'.
were = V, past tense, agrees with the subject (plural/singular). None of C's test cover this.
outgrabe = V, clauses need a verb, and it is in the verbal position, following the subject.
jubjub = N/A. (see note below)
frumious = A. Stands before a noun and ends in the adjectival suffix 'ious'.
bandersnatch = N, follows a determiner and an adjective, which modifies it.
vorpal = N/A. (see note below)
manxone = N/A. (see note below)
tumtum = N/A (see note below)
and = conjunction, links two verb phrases. No test by C. Traditionally, they connect two like parts of speech, but this definition is partly wrong.
in = preposition. Carnie doesn't give a test for a preposition. They usually occur immediately in front of a noun phrase, which C doesn't define. They can be modified by 'right' (right in), 'smack dab' (smack dab in the middle), Prepositions never take inflectional endings, and they tend to mark location and space, as well as a few abstract things (about).
thought = N, follows a preposition with no intervening determiners or adjectives. It is neither a subject nor an object. Since we know this word, it can take the plural ending '-s' which is the best test we have. (see note below)
uffish = A, modifier, ends with adjectival suffix 'ish.'
he = D/NP. C doesn't discuss this one either. It has the form of NP (substitution of NP) and function of D. either is acceptable.
Jaberwock = N, follows 'the' with no intervening modifiers, subject of sentence.
whiffling = V, C does not cover this in his list of tests for verbs. It is a participle, which is an inflected from of a verb. What is maddening here is that in one of his tests it is "the predicate of the clause". He doesn't define predicate until p. 166, and even there it is poorly defined. One has to assume that it is an action, and this is its defining characteristic. This feature is not a good one for defining verbs.
the = D, not defined. Here, one must know its function, which is not given.
tulgey = (see note below)
burbled = V, could be an action, and -ed could be a tense marker. It almost is a verb by default by distribution: X as he came. Very bad test.
Note: words like 'jubjub' are foreign to English. Therefore, we can use the suffix tests, because we don't know if one can say 'jubjubs' or 'the jubjub did something, and so forth. And we don't know if one can say 'this bird is more jubjub than that bird.' Only adjectives and adverbs can be marked for the comparative degree. It can't be an adverb here because it occurs between 'the' and 'bird.' We really can't identify the name of the part of speech. We have to let either A or N pass here, but when it is a well known English word, then we can arrive at a definite conclusion.
3. Nootka
a) qu:?as is a noun.
b) mamu:kma is a verb.
c) qu:?as is a verb.
d) mamu:kma is a noun.
e) nouns can be marked as definite; verbs cannot.
f) verbs can be inflected for tense, nouns cannot.
g) Since X can function either as a noun or a verb, the meaning of X is not determining the category.
4. Structure.
a) One can say
(It was) The minivan (that) Susan gave to Petunia.
(It was) Petunia (that) Susan gave the minivan to.
but not
*(It was) The minivan to Petunia (that) Susan gave.
Constituents may be relocated, but nonconstituents cannot.
Pronominal replacement:
Susan give it to Petunia.
Susan gave the minivan to her.
Susan gave her it.
*Susan gave it (or any pronoun).
A pronoun cannot replace two constituents at once.
b) One can say:
(It was) a passionate love letter from Stacy that Clyde got.
Clyde got it. (it = a passionate love letter from Stacy).
The phrase can be relocated, and it can be replaced with a pronoun.
9) Bambara
1) No (with such limited data)
2) Yes.
3) Apparently not.
?) The pronouns and 'den.'
4) N <--> NP.
5) PP <--> NP P
6) VP <--> (NP) V (PP)
7) S <--> NP VP
8)
9) [S [NP a] [P [V kasi-ra]]]
[S [NP den] [T ye] [VP [NP ji] [V min].
.