In this chapter, as in the others, it is best to establish the most significant themes/points section by section.

One way in which this chapter is unlike all the others is that Riley does not seek to solve all the historical problems relevant to his topic. He points to problems that have not been adequately addressed. See the two conundra (235-39, 261-63). What are they and why are they significant? Riley suggests possible ways of solving these conundra but realizes that we are not yet in a position to provide conclusive answers. This shows us that in history, as in other disciplines, the questions we ask are at least as important as the answers we propose.

Identify: proto-industrialization, piece-rate workers, consumer revolution.

1. What demographic changes occurred in Europe over the eighteenth century?

2. What characterized eighteenth-century agriculture?

3. What role did the state play in the economy?

4. In what specific ways did the material circumstances change for many Europeans as of the second half of the seventeenth century?

5. Why does Riley refer to the eighteenth century as "the dawn of the age of the shopkeeper" (p. 258)?

6. Analyze the illustration on p. 256. What does it depict? What is its significance in the context of the chapter?

7. Riley refers to "the advent of a consumer revolution" (p. 263)? How is this significant in the context of the chapter's conclusion?